Ping Pong Diplomacy

Ping Pong Diplomacy

Tentang peran ‘orang-orang kecil’ dalam diplomasi dan bagaimana berbagai peristiwa kebetulan turut menentukan jalannya sejarah.

Oleh: Shohib Masykur*

Dilihat dari sudut pandang ping pong, seluruh manusia di dunia ini bisa digolongkan ke dalam 4 macam. Jenis pertama adalah orang yang tidak suka sama sekali bermain ping pong. Orang-orang ini bisa jadi tidak pernah sekalipun seumur hidupnya memegang bola ping pong, bet, maupun net. Atau jika pun pernah, mereka melakukannya secara sambil lalu, serupa dengan orang yang pernah lewat di daerah tertentu namun setelah itu segera lupa dan tak pernah mengingat-ingatnya lagi serta tak ada keinginan untuk melewatinya kembali. Jenis kedua, orang yang menganggap ping pong tak lebih dari sekedar keisingan di waktu senggang. Orang-orang ini kadang-kadang bermain ping pong, namun mereka melakukannya jika dan hanya jika mereka punya waktu luang dan tidak ada kegiatan lain yang bisa dilakukan. Mereka tidak terlalu menikmatinya dan tidak memiliki keinginan kuat untuk melakukannya di lain waktu. 

Kategori ketiga adalah orang yang menjadikan ping pong sebagai hobi. Orang-orang ini menikmati bermain ping pong dan melakukannya secara rutin. Ada rasa kangen ketika mereka berpisah dari bola ping pong dan bet dalam waktu yang lama. Terakhir, orang yang jalan hidupnya adalah ping pong. Bagi mereka, ping pong bukan sekedar permainan, olah raga, ataupun hobi, tapi merupakan bentuk komitmen yang membuahkan prestasi, ketenaran, dan kegemilangan. Ma Long dan Ma Lin, dua pemain top dunia dari China, termasuk kategori ini. Demikian pula dengan Zhuang Zedong, pemain ping pong terbaik sepanjang masa dari China yang menjadi salah satu tokoh sentral dalam Ping Pong Diplomacy (1971), peristiwa monumental yang menjadi simbol mencairnya ketegangan antara Amerika Serikat dan China. Tulisan ini adalah cerita tentang Zhuang beserta kawan-kawannya dan bagaimana berbagai peristiwa kebetulan seputar kronik monumental itu turut menentukan jalannya sejarah dan mengubah konstelasi geopolitik dunia.

Konteks Geopolitik Ping Pong Diplomacy

Perang Dingin adalah kata kuncinya. Saat itu dasawarsa 1960-an. Ketegangan antara Amerika Serikat sebagai kampium kapitalisme dan demokrasi liberal dengan Uni Soviet sebagai punggawa komunisme tengah mencapai titik puncak. Di bawah naungan payung realisme yang mendewakan balance of power, keduanya saling berebut pengaruh di berbagai belahan dunia. Di Asia, Amerika antara lain berteman dengan Jepang, Filipina, Korea Selatan, Taiwan, dan Vietnam Selatan sebagai sekutu. Sementara Rusia antara lain berteman dengan Korea Utara dan Vietnam Utara. 

Kebijakan utama AS, yang dikeluarkan oleh Presiden Harry S Truman dan dikenal sebagai Doktrin Truman, adalah mengepung komunisme (containment policy) dalam rangka mengatasi pengaruh Soviet. Di beberapa negara, perebutan pengaruh liberalism AS versus komunisme Soviet itu tampil dalam bentuk telanjang berupa perang internal. Korea, Vietnam, dan Kamboja adalah contohnya. Ketiga negara ini terbelah karena urusan ideologi. 

Perebutan pengaruh itu terus bereskalasi hingga terjadi perubahan drastis pada tahun 1969 saat Richard Nixon terpilih menjadi Presiden AS yang ke 37. Nixon yang dibantu oleh penasehatnya, Henry Kissingers, mengambil kebijakan détente (peredaan ketegangan) dengan Soviet yang kala itu dipimpin Lionid Brezhnev. Salah satu bentuknya adalah kesepakatan kedua belah pihak untuk membatasi kepemilikan hulu ledak nuklir. Meski demikian, bukan berarti konflik telah selesai. Perebutan pengaruh tetap terjadi meski dengan level dan pola yang berbeda. Dalam konteks seperti itulah Nixon melancarkan kebijakan mendekati China.

Sejak berkuasanya Partai Komunis China (PKC) di bawah pimpinan Mao Zedong tahun 1949, Amerika Serikat memutuskan hubungan diplomatik dengan China. Maklum, sejak awal Amerika mendukung Partai Kuomintang yang nasionalis di bawah pimpinan Chiang Kaisek. Ketika mendapati ‘boneka’-nya dihancurkan oleh Mao dan dipaksa menyingkir ke Pulau Formosa (Taiwan), Amerika segera menutup pintu hatinya untuk China. Embargo perdagangan pun segera diterapkan atas China. Namun melihat perkembangan konstelasi ideologi dan politik yang terjadi, mau tak mau Amerika harus mengendurkan sikapnya terhadap China. Sebab bagaimanapun Soviet dianggap lebih berbahaya ketimbang China. Untuk membendung Soviet, Amerika perlu merangkul China. Dengan tindakannya itu, Amerika ingin memecah belah kekuatan geng komunis sekaligus memperkuat kekuatan barisannya sendiri. Dan momentum itupun datang dengan memanasnya hubungan Soviet-China akibat konflik perbatasan di akhir 1960-an, bertepatan dengan naiknya Nixon sebagai Presiden AS pada tahun 1969. 

Hubungan China dengan Soviet sendiri memang tidak pernah mesra meski keduanya sama-sama negara komunis. Akar persoalannya ada pada keterbelahan ideologi (ideological split) dan strategi gerakan yang sebenarnya sudah berlangsung lama. Saat Mao memimpin PKC merebut kekuasaan dari tangan Partai Kuomintang yang berhaluan nasionalis dan di-back-up Amerika pada tahun 1940-an, Soviet yang kala itu dipimpin Stalin memberikan berbagai nasihat dan panduan. Namun arahan dari ‘saudara tua’ itu tidak dipatuhi oleh Mao. Misalnya, Soviet menyarankan agar Mao menggunakan kekuatan buruh untuk melancarkan revolusi dan merebut kekuasaan. Namun Mao yang melihat kondisi obyektif di China lain dengan di Rusia memilih jalan lain. Di China, proses industrialisasi belum semasif di Rusia, dan mayoritas penduduk China bukanlah buruh industri, melainkan petani. Karena itu Mao memilih menggunakan petani sebagai kekuatan penggerak revolusi dengan strategi ‘Desa Mengepung Kota.’ 

Hal ini dipandang sebagai insubordinasi alias pembangkangan oleh Soviet. Dalam masyarakat komunis, insubordinasi adalah dosa besar yang tidak bisa ditolerir. Karena itulah hubungan keduanya menjadi tidak akur. Sementara di sisi lain, China sendiri menganggap Soviet telah menghianati ajaran Marxisme-Leninisme dan berkolusi dengan imperialisme, terutama sejak Soviet dipimpin oleh Nikita Khrushchev. Sementara China masih trauma dengan pengalaman imperealisme, Soviet sudah tidak lagi begitu peduli terhadap imperealisme karena merasa posisinya sudah aman. Bahkan Soviet tak segan-segan untuk melakukan hubungan dagang dengan negara-negara imperialis Barat. Hal itu tentu saja menyakiti hati China yang sesungguhnya berharap ‘saudara tua-’nya itu lebih memiliki empati terhadapnya.

Menjelang akhir 1960-an, keterbelahan ideologi itu semakin memanas dan hampir bertransformasi menjadi perang terbuka karena adanya konflik perbatasan. Sebuah pulau bernama Damansky Island (versi Soviet) atau Chenpao (versi China) di kawasan Ussuri River diperebutkan oleh kedua negara. Sengketa pulau itu sendiri sudah mulai mengemuka sejak 1963. Pada bulan Maret 1969, terjadi dua kali kontak senjata antara tentara China dengan tentara Soviet di pulau tersebut. Namun kedua belah pihak masing saling menahan diri karena takut terjadi perang nuklir mengingat dua negara ini sama-sama memiliki senjata nuklir.

Momentum itu pun tidak disia-siakan oleh Nixon yang menerapkan kebijakan “musuh dari musuh adalah teman.” Dia segera memutar haluan kebijakan Amerika terhadap China dengan berupaya merangkulnya menjadi teman. Namun sebegitu jauh Nixon masih belum menemukan cara yang tepat untuk melakukan pe-de-ka-te. Maklum, ibarat seorang gadis, China adalah sosok yang dingin, keras kepala, mau menang sendiri, dan tak kenal kompromi. Tak mudah untuk mendekatinya. Namun gadis itu pun luar biasa cantik dan menariknya sehingga banyak pemuda yang ingin berdekatan dengan dia. Karena itu, dengan cara apapun Nixon berjanji untuk mendapatkannya. Jauh hari sebelum menjadi presiden, Nixon pernah mengemukakan keinginannya itu dalam sebuah tulisan berjudul “Asia After Vietnam” di jurnal Foreign Affairs edisi Oktober 1967, sebuah tulisan yang melambungkan reputasinya dan membantunya memenangkan pemilu. “Taking the loving view we simply connot afford to leave China forever outside the family of nations,” tulisnya. Ucapan senada, namun dengan sentimen yang lebih kuat, diulanginya dalam seubah wawancara dengan majalah Time tak lama setelah secara resmi dia dinominasikan sebagai calon presiden dari Partai Republik. “If there is anything I want to do before I die, it is to go to China,” ujarnya kepada Time.

Dalam rangka mendekati China, Nixon tidak berani langsung main tembak dan merasa butuh comblang. Maka dipilihlah Presiden Pakistan Yahya Khan. Pada tanggal 25 Oktober 1970, Nixon meminta Khan mengirimkan pesan lisan ke China bahwa Amerika ingin menormalisasi hubungannya dengan China. Untuk keperluan itu, Amerika bermaksud mengirim salah seorang pejabat tingginya secara diam-diam ke China. Guna merayu China, Nixon bersedia memanggilnya dengan sebutan resmi yang selama ini tidak pernah digunakan AS di depan publik, yakni “People’s Republic of China.” Rupanya rayuan Nixon manjur. Khan yang dikirim sebagai comblang mengabarkan bahwa China memberi sinyal positif. Sang pemimpin tertinggi, Mao Zedong, telah memberikan restunya. Sampai di sini, boleh dibilang pe-de-ka-te Nixon menunjukkan masa depan yang cerah. ‘Gadis berhati es’ itu tampaknya sudah mulai mencair. Namun demikian, kunjungan tidak bisa segera dilakukan karena beberapa pertimbangan teknis, seperti siapa yang akan berkunjung ke China, kapan kunjungan dilakukan, dan lain-lain. Maka Nixon pun dituntut bersabar menghadapi ‘si cantik’ yang rewel itu.

Si cantik itu sendiri rupanya juga sosok yang pemalu. Meski dalam hati mau, tapi toh dia tidak leluasa mengungkapkannya secara langsung dan terang-terangan kepada yang bersangkutan. Dia juga memerlukan comblang. Adalah Edgar Snow yang kali ini memainkan peran. Snow adalah seorang warga negara Amerika yang telah lama menjadi teman baik Mao Zedong. Dalam diskusinya dengan Snow pada 18 Desember, Mao mengatakan bahwa jika Nixon hendak berkunjung ke China, hendaknya dia melakukannya secara diam-diam dengan menggunakan pesawat. Bahkan kalau perlu dia menyamar sebagai turis. “I don’t think I’ll wrangle with him, though I’ll criticize him,” demikian komentar Mao tentang rencana pertemuannya dengan Nixon.

Meski dengan jalur yang berlika-liku dan masing-masing pihak sok jaim, tapi toh kesimpulannya tetap, yakni bahwa keduanya ingin saling mengenal lebih mendalam dan berhasrat untuk segera bertemu. Tinggal menunggu momentum saja. Dan momentum itu cepat atau lambat pasti akan datang. Untung bagi keduanya, yang ditunggu-tunggu itu datang tak lama kemudian. Momentum itu muncul ketika digelar World Table Tennis Championship di Nagoya, Jepang, pada tanggal 28 Maret-7April 1971. Sungguh kebetulan bagi keduanya karena pada mulanya mereka tidak pernah membayangkan bahwa momentum itu adalah hal yang “sepele” semacam itu.

Berbagai Peristiwa Kebetulan dan Peran ‘Orang-orang Kecil’

Saat tim ping pong dari China dan Amerika Serikat memutuskan ikut serta dalam turnamen tenis meja dunia tersebut, tak terbersit sedikitpun dalam benak mereka maksud untuk menjadi comblang bagi kedua negara. Pihak Jepang selaku penyelenggara juga tidak pernah berpikir demikian. Maklum, hubungan China dengan Jepang sendiri juga tidak pernah baik. China pernah mengalami pengalaman traumatik di paroh pertama abad 20 saat bala tentara Jepang menginvasi China dan memperlakukan rakyat negeri itu layaknya budak. Jepang baru hengkang dari negeri Sun Tzu itu setelah berhasil diusir oleh gerakan komunis di bawah komanda Mao Zedong. Namun sejak itu, hubungan keduanya terus diwarnai ketegangan dan konfrontasi.

Cobaan Silih Berganti

Pada awalnya, China masih ragu-ragu untuk turut andil dalam turnamen 2 tahunan itu karena pertimbangan politis. Dalam 2 turnamen sebelumnya pada tahun 1967 dan 1969, China absen karena tengah dilanda gelombang badai Revolusi Kebudayaan Proletariat Agung (Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution). Setelah Revolusi Kebudayaan mereda, China mulai mikir-mikir untuk kembali turut berkontestasi dalam turnamen tersebut. Namun China belum yakin karena adanya pertimbangan-pertimbangan politis. Adalah Koji Goto, Presiden Asosiasi Tenis Meja Jepang (Japan Tabble Tennis Association/JTTA) sekaligu Presiden Asosiasi Tenis Meja Asia (Asian Tabble Tennis Association, ATTA) yang berusaha keras membujuk China untuk ikut serta. Tujuannya semata-mata untuk membuat turnamen itu lebih menarik. Maklum, sejak kemunculannya pertama kali di turnamen tingkat dunia pada tahun 1953 yang dilanjutkan dengan kemengannya pada tahun 1959, China menjadi salah satu aktor terpenting dalam turnamen tenis meja dunia. Meski sempat absen dua kali, namun kehadiran tim terbaik dunia itu tetap dinanti-nanti. Rasanya kurang afdhol jika turnamen di Jepang ini tidak diikuti China, seperti layaknya Piala Dunia tanpa kehadiran Brazil. 

Untuk tujuan itu, Goto melakukan kunjungan pribadi ke China pada tanggal 24 Januari 1971 guna meyakinkan negara tetangga tersebut untuk ikut serta dalam turnamen. Sebagai buktu iktikad baiknya, Goto meyakinkan China bahwa Jepang akan menjunjung tinggi 3 prinsip yang ditetapkan China dalam hubungan China-Jepang sejak 1958, yakni bahwa Jepang tidak akan menerapkan kebijakan anti-China Daratan, Jepang tidak akan turut serta dalam konspirasi menciptakan ‘dua China,’ dan Jepang tidak akan menghalangi normalisasi hubungan China-Jepang.­ Goto yang merupakan Presiden ATTA itu juga berjanji jika China bersedia ikut serta, dia akan berupaya menanggalkan keanggotaan Taiwan dari ATTA. Seperti diketahui, Beijing selalu menganggap Taiwan merupakan bagian dari China. Lebih jauh, Goto bahkan menjadikan dirinya pribadi sebagai jaminan. Jika dia gagal menjalankan misinya mengeluarkan Taiwan dari keanggotaan, dia akan mengundurkan diri dari jabatannya sebagai Presiden ATTA.

Dengan sekian banyak janji dari Goto, toh China masih belum bisa diyakinkan. Pertimbangan politik membuat China ragu dan terlalu hati-hati. China menghendaki agar janji Goto tersebut dituangkan dalam proceeding yang dibuat antar-kedua asosiasi. Namun permintaan itu ditolak oleh Goto yang berpendapat bahwa alasan-alasan politis semacam itu tidak selayaknya dimuat dalam proceeding antar-dua asosiasi olah raga. Perundingan pun mandeg, dan kunjungan Goto tampaknya hanya akan sia-sia. Dia pulang dengan masygul karena misinya mengikutsertakan China dalam turnamen gagal.

Dalam momen kritis itu, tampillah Perdana Menteri China Zhou Enlai yang mengubah situasi. Sosok yang dikenal sebagai tokoh moderat itu berpendapat bahwa China harus ikut serta dalam turnamen. Dia bahkan memarahi delegasi China yang bertemu dengan Goto. “It was wrong of you to always put pressure on others without solving any practical problems,” tegurnya kepada para delegasi. Bahkan dengan berani dia menambahkan. “Don’t be such leftist!” Karena campur tangannya ini, akhirnya China bersedia menandatangani proceeding tanpa memasukkan aspek-aspek politik di dalamnya pada tanggal 1 Februari 1971. Meski harus melibatkan ‘orang besar’ seperti Zhou Enlai, namun peran ‘orang kecil’ seperti Goto jelas sangat menentukan dalam proses awal Ping Pong Diplomacy ini.

Lolos dari cobaan pertama, cobaan kedua untuk Ping Pong Diplomacy menyusul dengan terjadinya perubahan perkembangan politik internasional. Tanggal 8 Februari 1971, tentara Vietnam Selatan dengan dukungan Amerika Serikat melancarkan invasi militer atas Vitenam Utara yang berhaluan komunis. Sebagai bentuk solidaritas ideologis, China menyatakan dukungannya terhadap Vietnam Utara dan menegaskan bahwa pihaknya siap melakukan tindakan apapun untuk membela perlawanan rakyat Vietnam Utara terhadap Amerika Serikat. Pada saat yang sama, situasi politik domestik di Kamboja juga memanas. Konflik antara Norodom Sihanouk yang didikung China dan Lon Nol membuat negara ini terbelah. Tim tenis meja di bawah Sihanouk menolak ikut bertanding dengan tim di bawah Lon Nol. Tim Sihanouk lalu memboikot turnamen internasional tersebut. Sadar akan pengaruhnya yang kecil, Sihanouk yang tengah mengungsi di Beijing meminta dukungan kepada China untuk turut serta memboikot turnamen. 

Zhou Enlai sebagai tokoh teratas yang mendukung keikutsertaan China dalam turnamen dibuat bingung dengan perkembangan politik tersebut. Dia tidak berani mengambil sikap. Akhirnya dia menyerahkan urusan itu kepada pemimpin tertinggi, yang dipertuan dari segala tuan di China, pemimpin besar revolusi, Mao Zedong. Sebelumnya Zhou sudah menyerahkan proceeding hasil perjanjian dengan tim Jepang kepada Ketua Mao. Namun sebegitu jauh tidak ada respon dari Sang Ketua. Karena tak berani mengamil risiko, Zhou memutuskan untuk melaporkan perkembangan situasi politik dan rencana keikutsertaan China dalam turnamen tenis dunia itu kepada Ketua Mao. 

Sebelum melapor, Zhou lebih dulu mengumpulkan para bawahannya guna meminta masukan. Dia juga menanyakan pendapat para pemain dan pelatih tim tenis meja. Zhou bermaksud membawa aspirasi, atau lebih tepatnya mengatasnamakan, bawahan dalam mengajukan usulan kepada Ketua Mao. Hasilnya, meski ada sebagian yang setuju, namun mayoritas menolak keikutsertaan China dalam turnamen karena pertimbangan politik. Toh demikian, Zhou tetap bersikeras agar China ikut serta. Pada dasarnya, Zhou memang sudah memiliki sikap sendiri. Tujuannya mengumpulkan bawahan hanyalah untuk ‘meminjam’ mereka ketika melapor kepada Mao. Dengan begitu jika terjadi sesuatu di luar dugaan, tanggung jawab tidak seluruhnya tertimpa ke pundaknya. Konon memang demikian karakter Zhou. Karena itu, ketika aspirasi anak buahnya tidak sesuai dengan yang dikehendakinya, dia tetap ngotot dengan kemauannya. Dalam laporannya kepada Mao tanggal 14 Maret, dia meyakinkan Sang Ketua bahwa pertimbangan politik akan tetap menjadi agenda utama, dan upaya meraih kemenangan dalam turnamen itu tidak akan mengalahkan pertimbangan politik. Lain dengan laporan pertama, laporan kedua ini mendapat respon cepat. Sore tanggal 15 Maret, Sang Ketua memberikan sinyal positif. “Do so accordingly,” kata Mao. Namun Mao tetap mewanti-wanti. “Our team should go. [The players] have to be prepared for not only hardship but also death. We should be prepared to lose a few people; of course it will be better if we don’t,” pesannya. 

Dengan adanya restu dari Sang Ketua ini, maka absah sudah keputusan China untuk ikut dalam turnamen. Sehari sebelum berangkat, anggota tim mendapat briefing dari PM Zhou Enlai tentang perkembangan situasi politik internasional. Akhirnya, pada tanggal 17 Maret atau 11 hari sebelum turnamen dimulai, tim China di bawah pimpinan ketua delegasi Zhao Zhenghong berangkat menuju Jepang. Selain berbagai keperluan lomba, keberangkatan para pemain dan pelatih tenis meja ini juga membawa bekal aturan-aturan yang harus mereka taati selama turnamen. Antara lain, mereka tidak boleh memulai pembicaraan atau berinisiatif menyapa jika bertemu dengan anggota tim Amerika Serikat. Mereka juga tidak boleh saling tukar bendera dan berjabat tangan jika bertanding dengan tim Amerika.

Kebetulan-kebetulan yang Berarti

Dengan berbagai aturan ketat yang membelenggu mereka, tim China tentu saja tidak leluasa dalam bergaul dengan tim-tim negara lain selama turnamen. Mengingat dalam negara komunis seperti China aturan bersifat doktrinal dan tak bisa diganggu gugat, tampaknya tipis harapan akan terjadinya komunikasi antara tim China dan tim Amerika. Jika demikian itu yang terjadi, maka bisa dipastikan Ping Pong Diplomacy tidak akan pernah terjadi. Namun rupanya sejarah memiliki logikanya sendiri. Peristiwa-peristiwa kebetulan yang terjadi selama turnamen mampu menembus segala batas keterikatan doktrinal dan menggulirkan roda sejarah menuju jalannya sendiri.

Peristiwa kebetulan pertama terjadi pada saat upacara pembukaan pada tanggal 27 Maret. Tanpa sengaja tim China saling tukar sapa dengan tim Amerika. Begitu tahu dari penerjemah bahwa tim yang mereka sapa adalah tim Amerika, tim China segera menghentikan percakapan. Tak cukup sampai di situ, mereka segera mengirim laporan ke Beijing mengabarkan peristiwa tersebut. Tiga hari kemudian, terjadilah peristiwa kebetulan kedua. Saat break pagi, sekretaris delegasi China Song Zhong tanpa sengaja duduk semeja dengan ketua delegasi Amerika yang juga Ketua Asosiasi Tenis Meja Amerika Serikat (US Tabble Tennis Association), Graham B Steenhoven. Bagi Steenhoven, tentu saja peristiwa itu tidak membuatnya rikuh. Bahkan dia mengajak ngobrol Song dan berceloteh bahwa 15 hari sebelumnya US Department of State telah menghapus larangan bagi warga Amerika tertentu yang ingin mengunjungi China.

Pertemuan tanpa sengaja itu rupanya memberi kesan tersendiri bagi Steenhoven. Saat bertemu lagi pada siang hari, dengan sopan dia berkata kepada Song. “Saya dengar China mengundang perwakilan Yugoslavia untuk berkunjung ke China selama seminggu setelah turnamen. Kemampuan tenis meja China sangat bagus. Kalau para pemain Amerika bisa berkunjung ke China, pasti mereka bisa belajar banyak dari para pemain China. Saya juga berharap pemain China bisa berkunjung ke Amerika,” kata Steenhoven. Dalam kesempatan itu Steenhoven juga menghadiahi Song uang setengah dolar bergambar Kennedy.

Kebetulan kedua ini barangkali akan terlewat begitu saja dan tidak membawa implikasi signifikan jika tidak ada kebetulan ketiga. Kebetulan ketiga itu adalah bahwa Song merupakan salah satu dari sedikit ‘intelektual’ China kala itu. Sebelum terjun ke dunia tenis meja, alumni Anti-Japanese Military and Political Academy ini pernah bekerja di markas besar tentara dan bertugas mengumpulkan dan menganalisis informasi militer. Dia tidak hanya menguasai tenis meja, tetapi juga tahu seluk-beluk politik dan sensitif menangkap ‘sinyal-sinyal diplomatik.’ Karena itu, begitu mendeteksi ‘sinyal’ dari delegasi Amerika, dia langsung mendiskusikannya dengan pemimpin delegasi yang lain setelah makan malam. Selain Song, Wakil Ketua Delegasi Wang Zhaoyun juga memiliki pengalaman diplomatik. Wang merupakan mantan diplomat yang pernah bekerja sebagai Sekretaris Satu di Kedubes China di Korea Utara dan berkarir lama di Kementerian Luar Negeri China. Setelah diskusi, akhirnya mereka melaporkan ‘sinyal’ itu ke Beijing. Namun tak ada respon pasti dari Pusat yang tampaknya masih menunggu perkembangan situasi di lapangan.

Perkembangan itu terjadi tanggal 2 April, saat hari break diisi dengan tur keliling Jepang dengan kapal. Pada momen tur itu, komunikasi antaranggota delegasi China dan Amerika makin intens. Salah seorang pemain Amerika bahkan menggoda pemain China. “Kami dengar kalian mengundang teman kami Inggris dan Kanada berkunjung ke China. Giliran kami kapan?” candanya. Kebetulan keempat berperan di sini. Para pemain Amerika bisa tahu bahwa China mengundang Inggris dan Kanada karena salah seorang pemain Kanada, Leah Neuberger, kebetulan selalu luntang-luntung bersama tim Amerika.

Perkembangan itu segera dilaporkan ke Beijing. Menerima ‘sinyal’ bertubi-tubi itu, Beijing pun mengirim respon. Namun respon itu negatif. “Katakan pada pemain Amerika bahwa sekarang belum waktunya mengundang mereka ke China. Barangkali di masa datang akan ada kesempatan,” demikian bunyi pesan dari Pusat tanggal 3 April.

Sampai di sini, tampaknya China tetap berhati dingin dan berkepala batu. China tak tergoyahkan oleh ‘godaan dan rayuan’ yang dilancarkan Amerika. Untunglah terjadi peristiwa kebetulan kelima yang bisa mencairkan kebekuan hati China. Tanggal 4 April siang, pemain Amerika Glenn Cowan salah masuk mobil. Bukannya naik mobil bersama rombongannya, dia malah masuk ke mobil yang mengangkut delegasi China. Betapa malunya dia saat menyadari tidak ada seorang pun dalam mobil itu yang menyapanya. Saat itulah Zhuang Zedong, pemain China terbaik sepanjang masa itu, berinisiatif memulai percakapan dengan Cowan. Saat ditegur oleh Zhao Zhenghong yang menjadi ketua delegasi, dengan santai Zhuang menimpali. “Santai saja. Kamu terlalu khawatir karena menjadi ketua delegasi. Sementara saya hanya pemain. Jadi tidak apa-apa,” ucapnya.

Zhuang Zedong (kiri)

Ada baiknya saya ulas sedikit mengenai tokoh yang satu ini. Zhuang Zedong merupakan pemenang 3 kali berturut-turut turnamen tenis dunia di tahun 1961, 1963, dan 1965. Gaya permainan Zhuang memiliki keunikan tersendiri. Di antaranya adalah cara dia memegang bet yang seperti memegang pena. Meski saat itu cara memegang bet semacam itu sudah marak digunakan, namun lazimnya teknik itu memiliki kelemahan, yakni kurang kuat dalam menyerang menggunakan backhand. Hebatnya, kelemahan itu berhasil ditutupi oleh kepiawaian tangan emas Zhuang. Pada tahun 1973, pria kelahiran 1940 ini menajadi favorit istri Mao, Jiang Qing, yang merupakan salah satu aktor paling berpengaruh di China kala itu dan pemimpin dari Gang of Four. Gang of Four adalah kelompok ekstrem sayap kiri yang menjadi arsitek Revolusi Kebudayaan yang telah menelan banyak korban baik nyawa maupun materi rakyat China. Selain Jiang Qing sebagai pemimpin, anggotanya lainnya adalah Zhang Chungqiao, Yao Wenyuan, dan Wang hongwen. Setelah Mao meninggal tahun 1976, keempat orang ini dijebloskan ke penjara oleh kelompok yang sebelumnya menjadi penentang Revolusi Kebudayaan. Zhuang yang konon merupakan selingkuhan Jiang Qing juga ikut dipenjara. Zhuang inilah yang nantinya akan menjadi spotlight dalam ‘drama’ Ping Pong Diplomacy.

Setelah perjalanan yang hanya berlangsung sekitar 5 menit itu, peristiwa lain yang lebih menghebohkan dan berdampak lebih besar terjadi. Saat Zhuang dan Cowan turun dari mobil, sejumlah wartawan yang memang sensitif terhadap isu hubungan China-AS telah menanti. Dengan membawa banner bergambar Yellow Mountain (salah satu pegunungan di China), Cowan berfoto dengan Zhuang. Tentu saja momen itu tidak dilewatkan begitu saja oleh para wartawan yang segera memberitakannya. Ketika sehari kemudian Cowan memberi kaos kepada Zhuang, wartawan kembali mem-blow-up-nya. Namun sepertinya berita media massa tentang peristiwa tersebut tidak langsung sampai ke Beijing. Dalam laporan ke Pusat, tim China juga tidak menyinggung peristiwa pemberian kaos tersebut.

Dari Beijing kembali datang instruksi kepada para delegasinya. Bukan saja Beijing kembali menegaskan bahwa belum saatnya delegasi Amerika diundang, bahkan muncul pula larangan bagi cewek delegasi Kanada yang berkewarganegaraan Amerika menemani cowoknya mengunjungi China. Namun para delegasi China bertindak cerdik dengan tidak menyampaikan pesan menyakitkan itu ke delegasi Amerika yang memang belum secara resmi menyampaikan permintaan berkunjung. ‘Kecerdikan diplomatik’ ini menyisakan ruang bagi China untuk mengubah sikap sewaktu-waktu jika muncul perkembangan baru.

Dan perkembangan baru itu benar-benar muncul. Tanggal 6 April sore atau hanya sehari sebelum turnamen selesai, Ketua Mao yang sebelumnya sudah setuju untuk tidak mengundang delegasi Amerika tiba-tiba berubah pikiran ketika membaca berita perjumpaan Zhuang dengan Cowan di koran Reference Materials, sebuah harian yang hanya bisa diakses oleh para pemimpin puncak Partai Komnis China (PKC). Dengan mata berbinar, dia berkomentar. “Zhuang Zedong ini tidak hanya seorang pemain tenis meja yang handal, tetapi juga seorang diplomat. Dia memiliki sensitifitas politik yang baik,” ujarnya. 

Malamnya, sekitar pukul 11 malam, Mao mengambil keputusan yang amat penting. Seperti biasa, Mao yang kala itu menginjak usia 78 selalu minum obat tidur setiap malam. Jauh hari sebelumnya dia sudah mewanti-wanti kepada perawat pribadinya, Wu Xujun, bahwa apapun ucapan yang dikeluarkannya setelah minum obat tidur tidak usah dianggap. Namun malam itu keluar sebuah ucapan yang luar biasa. Dengan suara tidak jelas karena sudah didera kantuk setelah minum obat tidur, Mao memberi perintah kepada Wu. “Telepon Wang Hairong (Kepala Divisi Protokol di Kementerian Luar Negeri) dan minta agar dia mengundang tim Amerika ke China,” katanya.

Mendapat perintah semacam itu, Wu pun terhenyak. Pasalnya, dia tahu bahwa sebelumnya Mao sudah setuju untuk tidak mengundang tim Amerika ke China. Sadar betapa pentingnya arti perintah itu, Wu kebingungan. Jika dilaksanakan, Wu terbentur perintah Mao sebelumnya bahwa apapun yang dikatakannya setelah minum obat tidur tidak perlu dihiraukan. Namun jika tidak dilaksanakan, risikonya terlalu besar. Hubungan dengan Amerika Serikat bukanlah perkara yang bisa dibuat main-main, apalagi oleh seorang perawat pribadi sepertinya. Terlebih tinggal 20 menit lagi tanggal 6 April akan segera berlalu, dan bisa jadi tim Amerika keburu pulang jika perintah Mao tidak segera diteruskan ke delegasi China. Pikir punya pikir, akhirnya Wu memutuskan untuk pura-pura tidak mengerti ucapan Mao. Jika Sang Ketua serius dengan ucapannya pasti dia akan mengulanginya, pikir Wu. Benar saja. Dengan mata merem-melek karena mengantuk, Mao yang melihat sang perawat belum melaksanakan perintahnya segera menegur. “Kok kamu masih di situ WU. Mengapa tidak kau laksanakan perintahku?” ujarnya.

Mendapat teguran itu, sadarlah Wu bahwa Mao memang serius dengan kata-katanya. Namun untuk memastikan, dia meminta penegasan dari Sang Ketua. “Anda telah minum obat tidur. Apakah perintah Anda serius?” tanyanya. “Tentu saja. Cepat! Cepat! Kalau tidak nanti tidak keburu lagi,” jawab Mao dengan tegas. Setelah mendapatkan penegasan, barulah Wu bergegas melaksanakan perintah tersebut. 

Episode pil tidur Mao ini menunjukkan bagaimana ‘orang kecil,’ seorang perawat pribadi, lagi-lagi turut andil dalam pengambilan sebuah keputusan besar suatu negara. Seandainya Wu tidak cerdik menyikapi perintah Mao, misalnya dia mengabaikan begitu saja perintah Sang Ketua yang telah dipengaruhi obat tidur itu, hampir bisa dipastikan Ping Pong Diplomacy tidak akan terjadi, dan barangkali sejarah China dan sejarah dunia akan menjadi lain dari yang sekarang kita saksikan. Episode itu bisa dibilang sebagai kebetulan kelima.

Berbagai kebetulan yang turut menentukan terjadinya Ping Pong Diplomacy tidak sampai di sini saja. Hari telah pagi ketika pimpinan delegasi China, Zhao Zhenghong, menerima instruksi dari Beijing. Saat itu dia sedang sarapan. Belum selesai makan, dia diberi tahu bahwa ada pesan penting dari Pusat. Isinya adalah perintah agar Zhao mengundang delegasi Amerika ke China. “Mengingat tim Amerika telah berkali-kali menyampaikan keinginannya untuk mengunjungi China dan mereka telah menunjukkan rasa persahabatan yang hangat, diputuskan untuk mengundang mereka, termasuk para pemimpi timnya, ke negara kita. Visa bisa diperoleh di Hong Kong. Jika dana mereka tidak cukup, kita bisa memberi subsidi,” demikian bunyi perintah tersebut.

Pontang-panting Zhao dibuatnya. Maklum, waktu sangat mepet. Zhao tidak yakin apakah delegasi Amerika masih di hotel atau sudah check out. Dia menyuruh Song Zhong untuk segera pergi ke hotel tempat delegasi Amerika menginap dan menyampaikan pesan tersebut. Waktu telah menunjukkan pukul 10.30 ketika Song tiba di hotel. Secara kebetulan, dia bertemu dengan wakil ketua delegasi Amerika, Rufford Horrison, yang baru saja keluar hotel dan menunggu taxi. Song pun menyampaikan pesan dari Beijing ke Horrison. Hampir saja Horrison tak mempercayai pendengarannya menerima pesan yang menakjubkan itu. Sebelumnya delegasi Amerika telah berencana meninggalkan Jepang esok harinya. Sungguh tak tersangka hanya sehari sebelum rencana kepulangan datang kabar menggemberikan dari Beijing. Dia pun berjanji mendiskusikannya dengan pimpinan dan anggota tim yang lain dan akan memberi kabar secepatnya. 

Setelah diskusi dengan timnya, Harrison melaporkan undangan China tersebut ke Kedubes AS di Jepang. Saat keputusan penting harus diambil, Dubes AS di Jepang Armin Meyer kebetulan tidak ada ditempat. Untunglah tampil William Cunningham, Kepala Divisi Eksternal Bidang Politik yang kebetulan juga merupakan satu-satunya ahli China saat itu, yang berani mengambil keputusan dan menyatakan siap bertanggung jawab. Dia mengatakan kepada Harrison bahwa sebagai warga negara biasa, anggota delegasi Amerika diberi kebebasan untuk menerima atau menolak undangan China. Seandainya saat itu Meyer ada di tempat, belum tentu keputusan yang diambil akan seperti Cunningham. Seandainya yang mengambil keputusan bukan Cunningham, barangkali keputusannya adalah menunggu instruksi Meyer, dan momen itu bisa jadi lewat begitu saja mengingat sangat terbatasnya waktu yang ada. Seandainya Cunningham bukan seorang ahli China, belum tentu dia berani mengambil risiko membuat keputusan tepat.

Belakangan, terbukti keputusan yang diambil Cunningham sangatlah tepat. Begitu Meyer pulang pada sore hari, segera dia mengirim kabar ke Kementerian Luar Negeri AS guna mengabarkan keputusan yang telah diambil Cunningham. Kabar itu lantas diteruskan ke Gedung Putih. Demi menerima kabar mengejutkan tersebut, Presiden Richard Nixon tercengang sekaligus senang. Dia sama sekali tidak menyangka ‘si gadis berhati dingin’ itu menggunakan ping pong sebagai sarana pendekatan. Tentu saja dia segera menyambut bola yang telah dilempar China tersebut. 

Gayung telah bersambut. Setelah berbagai lika-liku dilalui, akhirnya berangkatlah rombongan delegasi ping pong Amerika beserta beberapa wartawan ke China pada tanggal 10 April. Selama seminggu di sana, mereka melakukan berbagai aktivitas, mulai dari demonstrasi ping pong tim Amerika versus tim China, mengunjungi Tembok Raksasa dan Istana Musim Panas di luar Beijing, bertemu dengan mahasiswa dan pekerja China, serta menghadiri berbagai event sosial di kota-kota besar. Mereka bahkan diterima oleh PM Zhou Enlai di Great Hall. Kehangatan sambutan warga China mendatangkan kesan tersendiri bagi rombongan tim Amerika, sebuah kesan yang menjungkirbalikkan persepsi yang selama ini mereka miliki tentang orang-orang China. Glenn Cowan, misalnya, dengan antusias mengatakan, “Fantastis! Benar-benar fantastis! Orang-orang China ternyata sama saja dengan kita. Mereka nyata, mereka genuine, mereka memiliki perasaaan.”

Rombongan tim ping pong Amerika berfoto di Tembok Raksasa.

People-to-people diplomacy yang kelihatannya sepele itu ternyata mendapatperhatian besar dari publik. Media domestik dan internasional melaporkan secara besar-besaran peristiwa tersebut. Ketika mengambil keputusan itu, Nixon dan penasehatnya, Henry Kissingers, ibarat bermain dadu. Mereka tidak tahu akan seperti apa reaksi publik Amerika. Karena itu, begitu tahu peristiwa tersebut diliput media-media AS, Kissinger sempat merasa gugup. Maklum, di Amerika pengaruh media massa begitu besarnya dalam menekan pemerintah. Untunglah reaksi media di Amerika sangat positif. The New York Times misalnya, memilih judul headline yang afirmatif-optimis, antara lain seperti ‘Chinese Greet Americans with Smiles and Curiosity’ (12 April) dan ‘Red China Hints Softening of Position on Tie to US’ (18 April). Washington Post pun memakai judul-judul yang senada, semisal ‘US Table Tennis Team Greeted Wamrly in Peking’ (11 April) dan ‘China Embargo Eased; Chou Sees Better Ties’ (15 April). Majalah Time bahkan melaporkan peristiwa itu dengan nada impresif. “The ping heard round the world,” tulis media tersebut. Reaksi positif dari media ini juga turut memutar bola salju efek Ping Pong Diplomacy sehingga efeknya semakin terasa.

Dampak Ping Pong Diplomacy

Dengan adanya Ping Pong Diplomacy ini, Amerika Serikat yang tadinya masih kebingungan bagaimana caranya mendekati China seolah-olah menemukan pintu. Di hari yang sama setelah Zhuo bertemu dengan delegasi Amerika di Great Hall tanggal 14 April, Washington segera mengumumkan 5 langkah baru dalam menjalin hubungan dengan China, termasuk salah satunya yang paling penting adalah pencabutan embargo yang telah berlangsung selama 20 tahun. Dua hari kemudian, Nixon mengirim pesan ke China disertai ‘sinyal’ bahwa dia bermaksud mengunjungi negeri Tirai Bambu tersebut. Beijing tidak segera mengafirmasi sinyal Nixon, namun memberi sinyal positif dengan menerima undangan tim ping pong Amerika kepada tim ping pong China untuk berkunjung ke negeri Paman Sam. 

Tanggal 17 Mei, Nixon secara resmi menyatakan maksudnya untuk berkunjung ke China. Namun dia mengusulkan agar lebih dulu diadakan pertemuan rahasia antara Kissingers dengan Zhou Enlai guna menyiapkan kunjungan tersebut. Kali ini Beijing membuka hatinya. Maka jadilah Kissingers secara diam-diam berkunjung ke China dan bertemu dengan Zhou Enlai pada 9-11 Juli. Hanya 4 hari kemudian, yakni tanggal 15 Juli, Nixon secara resmi mengumumkan rencana kunjungannya ke China yang akan dilakukan sebelum Mei 1972.

Nixon Berkunjung ke China

Setelah melewati berbagai lika-liku di atas, akhirnya kunjungan Nixon dilakukan pada tanggal 17-28 Februari 1972. Maka terjadilah pertemuan bersejarah antara dua pemimpin tertinggi dua negara besar, Richard Nixon dan Mao Zedong, pada tanggal 21 Februari. Dua hati yang tadinya berseteru itu telah bersatu. Dalam pertemuan itu, Nixon menyatakan bahwa Amerika dan China memiliki kepentingan bersama untuk menormalisasi hubungan kedua negara. Hal itu diperlukan guna mengurangi peluang terjadinya konflik dan menjaga perdamaian. Usai kunjungan, masing-masing pihak saling memberi cindera mata. Uniknya, kedua cindera mata yang ditukarkan sama-sama berwujud binatang. AS memberi China sepasang lembu kesturi, sedangkan China menghadiahi AS sepasang panda raksasa. Sepasang panda itu tiba di AS 1972 dan disimpan di Kebun Binatang Nasional, Washington DC, sebagai simbol hubungan AS-China. Sejak itulah hubungan China dan Amerika Serikat semakin berkembang.

Mao bertemu Nixon.

Namun begitu, bukan berarti hubungan keduanya lantas menjadi mesra sepanjang masa. Fluktuasi tetap saja ada. Hal ini lantaran perbedaan karakter keduanya yang terlalu mencolok. Di satu sisi, Amerika adalah negara maju yang menjunjung tinggi demokrasi, HAM, dan liberalisme, sementara di sisi lain China merupakan negara berkembang yang mengantus sistem komunis dan sensitive terhadap demokrasi dan HAM. Bahkan hingga sekarang, hubungan keduanya masih terus mengalami transformasi. Namun apapun juga, cairnya hubungan keduanya sejak 1970-an memberikan nuansa lain dalam konstelasi geopolitik global. Semua itu adalah berkat—salah satunya—Ping Pong Diplomacy. Jadi, siapa bilang multi-track diplomacy adalah barang baru? Sebagai bentuk apresiasi, marilah kita bermain ping pong…

Sumber:

1. Biography of Richard Milhous Nixon, http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf.
2. Ping Pong Diplomacy, http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/olympics/100660.htm.
3. Ping-PongDiplomacy (April 6 - 17, 1971), http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/peopleevents/pande07.html.
4. Ping Pong Diplomacy: Nixon’s Trip to China, http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/html/exhibits.php?id=7.
5. Ping-Pong Diplomacy Spearheaded U.S.-Chinese Relations, http://www.america.gov/st/peacesec-english/2006/April/20080522121040WRybakcuH0.8632013.html.
6. Sino-Japanese Relations, http://www.c-s-p.org/Flyers/9781847186201-sample.pdf.
7. Sino-Japanese Relations: Issues for US Policy, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40093.pdf.
8. Sino-US Relations in Transformation, http://irchina.org/en/xueren/china/view.asp?id=700.
9. The Development of Sino-Russia Relations, http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/34904/8/501108.pdf.
10. The Path Toward Sino-American Rapprochement, 1969–1972, http://www.ghi-dc.org/files/publications/bu_supp/supp1/supp-01_026.pdf.
11. The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict, 1969: US Reactions and Diplomatic Maneuvers, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49/.
12. The Sino-Soviet Split, http://www.marxists.org/subject/stalinism/origins-future/ch3-1.htm.
13. Thomas W Robinson, The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: Background, Development, and the March 1969 Clashes, http://www.jstor.org/pss/1957173.
14. Zhaohui Hong dan Yi Sun, The Butterfly Effect and the Making of ‘Ping-Pong Diplomacy,’ Journal of Contemporary China (2000), 9(25), 429–448, http://www.cbtm.org.br/scripts/arquivos/3862998.pdf.
15. Zhuang Zedong, http://www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/en/Zhuang_Zedong 

* Penulis adalah calon diplomat muda Kementerian Luar Negeri Republik Indonesia. Tulisan ini bersifat pribadi dan tidak mewakili institusi.

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>><<<<<<<<<<<<

Ping Pong DiplomacyOn the role of 'little people' in diplomacy and how many coincidences helped determine the course of history.

By: Shohib Masykur *

ping-pong-diplomacy4

Seen from the perspective of ping pong, all people in the world can be classified into 4 types. The first type is the person who did not like at all to play ping pong. These people may not ever even holding lifetime ping pong ball, bet, or net. Or if ever, they do it in passing, similar to people who have passed in certain areas but then immediately forget and never remember it again and there was no desire to pass it back. The second type, people who think ping pong is nothing more than keisingan in my spare time. These people sometimes play ping pong, but they do so if and only if they have spare time and nothing else to do. They are not overly enjoy it and do not have a strong desire to do so at a later time.

The third category is the one that makes ping pong as a hobby. These people enjoy playing ping pong, and do it regularly. There is a sense of missed when they are separated from the ping pong ball and a bat in a long time. Finally, the way of life which is ping pong. For them, ping pong is not just a game, sport, or hobby, but a form of commitment that led to achievement, fame, and glory. Ma Long and Ma Lin, the world's top two players from China, belong to this category. Similarly, Zhuang Zedong, ping pong players of all time from China who became one of the central figures in the Ping Pong Diplomacy (1971), a monumental event that became a symbol of the melting of tension between the United States and China. This paper is the story of Zhuang and his friends and how many coincidences surrounding the monumental chronicle it helped determine the course of history and changing the world geopolitical constellation.

Geopolitical context of Ping Pong Diplomacy

Cold War is the key word. When the 1960s. Tensions between the United States as kampium capitalism and liberal democracy with Soviet communism as a retainer of the middle reaches its peak. Under the shade of an umbrella realism that deify balance of power, both are competing for influence in various parts of the world. In Asia, America, among others, make friends with Japan, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, and South Vietnam as an ally. While Russia, among others, make friends with North Korea and North Vietnam.

Major U.S. policy, which was issued by President Harry S Truman, and is known as the Truman Doctrine, is surrounded communism (containment policy) in order to overcome the influence of the Soviets. In some countries, the struggle for influence U.S. liberalism versus Soviet communism was featured in a naked form of internal war. Korea, Vietnam, and Cambodia is an example. These three countries are divided because of ideological affairs.

Struggle for influence that continues to escalate until a drastic change in 1969 when Richard Nixon was elected the 37th President of the United States. Nixon, aided by his advisor, Henry Kissingers, adopted a policy of détente (easing tensions) with the then Soviet-led Lionid Brezhnev. One form is the agreement of both parties to limit the possession of nuclear warheads. However, it does not mean the conflict is over. Struggle for influence persists despite the different levels and patterns. In such a context that launched Nixon's China policy approach.

Since the reign of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under the leadership of Mao Zedong in 1949, the United States broke off diplomatic relations with China. Understandably, since the beginning of America supported the nationalist Kuomintang Party under the leadership of Chiang Kaisek. When found 'his boneka' destroyed by Mao and forced away to the island of Formosa (Taiwan), the United States immediately shut her door to China. Trade embargo was soon applied to China. But look at the development of political and ideological constellation that happens, Americans inevitably have to loosen its stance against China. Because after the Soviets considered more dangerous than China. To stem the Soviets, America needs to embrace China. By his actions, America wants to divide the power of the communist gangs while strengthening his own power ranks. And even then it comes with a heated momentum Soviet-Chinese relations due to the border conflict in the late 1960s, coinciding with the rise of Nixon as U.S. president in 1969.

China's relations with the Soviets themselves had never been cordial despite both are communist countries. Root of the problem is in split ideologies (ideological split) and the actual movement of the strategy of long standing. When Mao led the CCP seized power from the nationalist Kuomintang Party and backed-up in America in the 1940s, which was then led by Soviet Stalin gave a variety of advice and guidance. However, the direction of the 'big brother' was not adhered to by Mao. For example, using the Soviet suggest that Mao labor force for revolution and seized power. But Mao who saw the condition of the other with the objective of China in Russia chose another path. In China, the process has not been such a massive industrialization in Russia, and the majority of the Chinese population is not industrial workers, but farmers. Mao therefore chose to use farmers as the driving force to the strategy revolution 'surrounding the cities.'

It is seen as insubordination insubordination by Soviet alias. In a communist society, insubordination is a great sin that can not be tolerated. That's why their relationship becomes strained. While on the other hand, China itself considers the Soviets had betrayed the teachings of Marxism-Leninism and colluded with imperialism, especially since the Soviets led by Nikita Khrushchev. While China is still traumatized by the experience imperealisme, the Soviets are no longer so concerned about imperealisme because he felt his position was safe. Even the Soviets did not hesitate to trade with Western imperialist countries. That certainly hurt China's real hope 'big brother-' it was more have empathy for him.

Towards the end of the 1960s, it was increasingly heated ideological divisions and almost transformed into an open war because of the border conflict. An island called Damansky Island (the Soviet version) or Chenpao (Chinese version) in Ussuri River region contested by both countries. Disputed island itself has started to emerge since 1963. In March 1969, armed clashes occurred twice between the Chinese army with Soviet troops on the island. However, the two sides each mutual restraint for fear of nuclear war since the two countries both have nuclear weapons.

The momentum was not wasted by Nixon who implemented the policy of "the enemy of an enemy is a friend." He immediately turning around America's policy toward China by trying to embrace being a friend. But Nixon is so far not found the right way to do the pe-de-ka-te. Understandably, like a girl, China is the figure of a cold, stubborn, bossy, and uncompromising. Not easy to approach. But she was incredibly beautiful and pulled so many young people who want to be near him. Therefore, in any way Nixon promised to get it. Long before becoming president, Nixon had expressed his desire in an article entitled "Asia After Vietnam" in the edition of the journal Foreign Affairs in October 1967, an article that catapulted his reputation and helped him win the election. "Taking the loving view we simply connot afford to leave China forever outside the family of nations," he wrote. The same remark, but with a stronger sentiment, repeated in an interview with Time magazine seubah shortly after he officially nominated as presidential candidate of the Republican Party. "If there is anything I want to do before I die, it is to go to China," he told Time.

In order to approach China, Nixon did not dare to directly play the shot and feel the need matchmakers. The chosen President of Pakistan Yahya Khan. On October 25, 1970, Nixon asked Khan verbal message to China that the U.S. wants to normalize its relationship with China. For this purpose, States intends to send one of its top officials secretly to China. In order to woo China, Nixon was willing to call him with an official designation that has not been used in front of the U.S. public, the "People's Republic of China." Apparently Nixon potent seduction. Khan sent as matchmakers reported that China gave a positive signal. The supreme leader, Mao Zedong, has given his blessing. Up here, arguably pe-de-ka-te Nixon suggests a bright future. 'Girl take ice' it seems to have started to melt. However, the visit could not be done due to some technical considerations, such as who will travel to China, when the visit was made, and others. So Nixon was required to put up with 'beauty' that fussy.

The fair itself was apparently too shy figure. Although the heart wants, but then he was not free to express it directly and openly to the person concerned. He also requires matchmakers. Edgar Snow who is this time played a role. Snow is an American citizen who has long been a good friend of Mao Zedong. In his discussion with Snow on December 18, Mao said that if Nixon would visit China, he should do it quietly by plane. Even if you have him posing as a tourist. "I do not think I'll WRANGLE with him, though I'll criticize him," commented Mao about his meeting with Nixon's plan.

Although the pathways that meander berlika and each party jaim pretentious, but nonetheless remained conclusion, namely, that they want to get to know each other more deeply and eager to meet you soon. Just waiting for momentum alone. And momentum that sooner or later will surely come. Fortunately for them, it's the long-awaited coming soon. Momentum appeared when World Table Tennis Championship held in Nagoya, Japan, on March 28-7April 1971. It's happened to the both of them because at first they never imagined that the momentum is the "trivial" kind of thing.

Various events happen and the role of 'Small People'

When the ping pong team from China and the United States decided to participate in the world table tennis tournament, not the slightest hint in the minds of their intent to be a matchmaker for both countries. The Japanese as the organizers did not even think about it. Understandably, China's relations with Japan itself also never good. China have had traumatic experiences in the first half of the 20th century when the Japanese army invaded China and the people of the country treats like slaves. Japan has resigned from Sun Tzu's country after successfully expelled by the communist movement under Mao Zedong commander. But since then, the relationship has continued tinged tension and confrontation.

Reparation trials Changes

At first, China is still hesitant to contribute in the 2nd annual tournament was due to political considerations. In the previous two tournaments in 1967 and 1969, China was hit by absences due to storm surge Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution (Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution). After the Cultural Revolution subsided, the Chinese began to re-think-think berkontestasi participate in the tournament. But China is not convinced because of political considerations. Is Koji Goto, President of the Table Tennis Association of Japan (Japan tabble Tennis Association / JTTA) sekaligu Table Tennis Association president Asia (Asian tabble Tennis Association, ATTA) is trying hard to persuade China to participate. The goal is simply to make the tournament more interesting. Understandably, since the first appearance at the world level tournament in 1953, followed by kemengannya in 1959, China became one of the most important actors in world table tennis tournament. Despite being sidelined two times, but the presence of the world's best teams still awaited. It feels less afdhol if tournament in Japan is not followed by China, just like the World Cup without the presence of Brazil.

For that purpose, Goto made a personal visit to China on January 24, 1971 in order to convince the neighboring countries to participate in the tournament. As proof of good faith, Goto convince China that Japan will uphold the three principles set out China in Sino-Japanese relations since 1958, namely, that Japan would not implement a policy of anti-Chinese mainland, Japan would not participate in the conspiracy to create 'two-China, 'and Japan will not hinder the normalization of China-Japan relations. Goto is an ATTA President also promised that if China is willing to take part, she would attempt to strip Taiwan of ATTA membership. As we all know, Beijing has always considered Taiwan a part of China. Furthermore, Goto even make himself personally as collateral. If he fails to carry out its mission of Taiwan issued a membership, he will resign from his position as President of the ATTA.

With the many promises of Goto, yet China still can not be convinced. Political considerations and make China feel too careful. China calls for appointments are set forth in the proceedings Goto made a second inter-association. But the request was rejected by Goto who argue that political reasons such proceedings should not be loaded in the inter-two sports associations. Negotiations were stalled, and visits Goto seems to just be in vain. He went home with sad because of its mission to include China in the tournament failed.

In that critical moment, arose Prime Minister Zhou Enlai that China change the situation. Figure known as the moderate leaders argue that China should participate in the tournament. He even scolded the Chinese delegation that met with Goto. "It was wrong of you to always put pressure on others without solving any practical problems," she scolded delegates. Even with bold she added. "Do not be such leftist!" Because of this interference, ultimately China is willing to sign the proceedings without entering the political aspects in it on February 1, 1971. Although the need to involve the big guys like Zhou Enlai, but the role of the 'little people' like Goto obviously crucial in the initial process of the Ping Pong Diplomacy.

zhou-Enlai

Escaped from the first trial, second trial for the Ping Pong Diplomacy followed by changes in the international political developments. Dated February 8, 1971, South Vietnamese troops to support the United States launched a military invasion of the North Vitenam communist leanings. As a form of ideological solidarity, China expressed support for North Vietnam and confirms that it is prepared to take any action to defend the North Vietnamese people's resistance against the United States. At the same time, the domestic political situation in Cambodia is also heating up. Conflict between Norodom Sihanouk and Lon Nol didikung China make this country divided. Table Tennis Team under Sihanouk refused to play with the team under the Lon Nol. Sihanouk team then boycotted the international tournament. Aware of the impact that small, Sihanouk who was displaced in Beijing asking for support for China to participate boycott the tournament.

Zhou Enlai as a top figure in favor of China's participation in the tournament is confused with political developments. He did not dare to take a stand. Finally he handed the matter to the supreme leader, the lords of lords, in China, the great revolutionary leader, Mao Zedong. Zhou had surrendered before proceeding into an agreement with the Japanese team's results to Chairman Mao. But so far there is no response from the Chairman. Because not dare actually take risks, Zhou decided to report on the political situation and development plan of China's participation in world tennis tournament was to Chairman Mao.

Before the report, Zhou first gather his subordinates to ask for input. He also asked what the players and coaches table tennis team. Zhou intends to bring aspiration, or rather on behalf of, the proposed subordinate to Chairman Mao. The result, although there are some who disagree, but the majority rejected China's participation in the tournament due to political considerations. After all this, still insisted that China's Zhou participate. Basically, Zhou already has its own attitude. The goal is to collect subordinates 'borrow' them when reporting to Mao. That way if something happens beyond a doubt, the responsibility does not entirely hit to his shoulder. It is said that this is so character Zhou. Therefore, when aspirations are not in accordance with his men he wanted, he persisted with his will. In his report to Mao on March 14, he assured the Chairman that political considerations will continue to be the main agenda, and efforts to achieve victory in the tournament will not beat political considerations. The other with the first report, the second report gets quick response. March 15 afternoon, the Chairman gave a positive signal. "Do so accordingly," said Mao. But Mao cautioned. "Our team should go. [The players] have to be prepared for not only hardship but also death. We should be prepared to lose a few people; of course it will be better if we do not, "the message.

With the approval of the Chairman of this, it is valid is China's decision to participate in the tournament. The day before leaving, team members received a briefing from the Prime Minister Zhou Enlai on the development of the international political situation. Finally, on March 17, or 11 days before the tournament began, the Chinese team under the leadership of chairman Zhao Zhenghong delegation departed for Japan. In addition to the various purposes of the competition, the departure of the table tennis players and coaches also took with them the rules they have to obey during the tournament. Among other things, they should not start a conversation or initiate a greeting when meeting with members of the U.S. team. They also should not be exchanged flags and shaking hands when playing with team USA.

Meaningful coincidences

With strict rules that handcuff them, the Chinese team is certainly not in the mix freely with other teams for the state tournament. Given the communist country like China doctrinal rules and can not be contested, it seems slim hopes of communication between the Chinese team and the American team. If so that's the case, then certainly Ping Pong Diplomacy will never happen. But apparently history has its own logic. Coincidences that occur during the tournament can penetrate any doctrinal attachment limits and rolling the wheel of history toward his own way.

The first chance events occurred during the opening ceremony on 27 March. Chinese team accidentally exchanging greetings with the American team. Idea of ​​translators so that they address the team is the American team, the Chinese team to immediately stop the conversation. Not quite up there, they immediately send a report to the Beijing reported the incident. Three days later, came the second chance. When morning break, secretary of the Chinese delegation Song Zhong accidentally sit down with the head of the American delegation and chairman of the United States Table Tennis Association (U.S. tabble Tennis Association), Graham B Steenhoven. For Steenhoven, of course it does not make it awkward event. He even invited talk Song and chattering that 15 days before the U.S. Department of State has removed certain restrictions for American citizens who wish to visit China.

The meeting was apparently inadvertently give the impression for Steenhoven. When met again at noon, she politely said to Song. "I heard that China invited representatives of Yugoslavia to visit China for a week after the tournament. Chinese table tennis ability is very good. If the American players can visit to China, surely they could learn a lot from the Chinese players. I also hope Chinese players can visit to America, "said Steenhoven. On that occasion also presented Steenhoven Song pictorial Kennedy half dollar money.

Incidentally it may be missed both for granted and do not carry significant implications if there is no third chance. The third coincidence is that the Song is one of the few 'intellectuals' of China at that time. Before plunging into the world of table tennis, alumni of the Anti-Japanese Military and Political Academy has worked at the headquarters of the army and in charge of collecting and analyzing military information. He not only mastered table tennis, but also knows the ins and outs of politics and capture sensitive 'diplomatic signals.' So, so detect 'signals' from the Americans, he went on to discuss with leaders of other delegates after dinner. Besides Song, Deputy Head of Delegation Wang Zhaoyun also has diplomatic experience. Wang is a former diplomat who served as the first secretary at the Chinese Embassy in North Korea and a long career in the Foreign Ministry of China. After discussion, they finally reported the 'signal' it to Beijing. But there was no definite response from the Centre apparently still waiting for the development of the situation on the ground.

Developments that occurred on April 2, when the break is filled with Japanese tour with the ship. At the moment of the tour, communication between the Chinese and American delegations increasingly intense. One of the American players tempt even the Chinese. "We invite you to hear our British and Canadian friends visiting China. When our turn? "He joked. Incidentally fourth play here. The American player may know that China invited the UK and Canada as one of the Canadian players, Leah Neuberger, always wandering luntung coincidence with the American team.

The developments reported immediately to Beijing. Receive a 'signal' that barrage, Beijing was sending a response. However, the response was negative. "Tell the American players that now is not the time to invite them to China. Perhaps in the future there will be a chance, "read a message from Center April 3.

At this point, it seems China remained cold hearted and hard-headed. China has not been deterred by 'temptation and seduction' that launched America. Fortunately fifth coincidences occur that could melt the coldness of China. April 4, noon, American player Glenn Cowan got the wrong car. Instead of riding with his entourage, he just got into the car carrying the Chinese delegation. How embarrassed he was when he realized no one was in the car that greeted her. That's when Zhuang Zedong, China's best player of all time, took the initiative to start a conversation with Cowan. When challenged by Zhao Zhenghong who became head of the delegation, with relaxed Zhuang said. "Take it easy. You worry too much because the head of the delegation. While I am just a player. So it does not matter, "he said.

Zhuang Zedong (left)

Zhuang Zedong (left)

It helps me review a little about the character of this one. Zhuang Zedong is the winner of 3 consecutive tennis tournament in the world in 1961, 1963, and 1965. Zhuang game style is unique. Among them is the way he holds the bat like a holding pen. Even though it was the manner of holding such a bet has been rapidly adopted, but typically the technique has a weakness, which is less powerful in attack using the backhand. Remarkably, the weakness was successfully covered by a gold hand expertise Zhuang. In 1973, the man born in 1940 menajadi favorite Mao's wife, Jiang Qing, who is one of the most influential actors in China at that time, and the leader of the Gang of Four. Gang of Four is a left-wing extremist groups who became the architect of the Cultural Revolution has claimed many casualties and material lives of the Chinese people. In addition to Jiang Qing as a leader, the other members are Chungqiao Zhang, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. After Mao died in 1976, four men sent to prison by a group that had previously been opponents of the Cultural Revolution. Zhuang said to be the mistresses Jiang Qing also jailed. Zhuang is what will be the spotlight in the 'drama' Ping Pong Diplomacy.

After a journey that lasted only about 5 minutes, the other more horrendous events and have greater impact occurs. When Zhuang and Cowan got out of the car, a number of reporters who are sensitive to issues of China-US relations have been waiting for. By bringing the pictorial banners Yellow Mountain (one of the mountains in China), Cowan photographed by Zhuang. Of course the moment it is not bypassed by the reporters who immediately proclaimed it. When a day later Cowan gave T-shirts to the Zhuang, the reporter went back to his blow-up. But it seems the news media about the incident was not immediately get to Beijing. In a report to the Centre, the Chinese team also did not mention the events giving the shirts.

From Beijing again came to the delegation instructions. Beijing is not only not the time to reiterate that the American delegation was invited, even for a girl appears also ban the American national Canadian delegation accompanying her boyfriend to visit China. But the Chinese delegation acted cleverly by not conveying the painful message to the Americans who did not formally submit requests to visit. 'Diplomatic ingenuity' This leaves room for China to change attitudes at any time if new developments arise.

And new developments that actually appear. April 6 afternoon, just one day before the tournament finishes, Chairman Mao who had previously agreed not to invite the Americans suddenly changed his mind when reading news Zhuang encounter with Reference Materials Cowan in the newspaper, a newspaper that can only be accessed by the top leaders of the Party Komnis China (CCP). With sparkling eyes, she commented. "Zhuang Zedong not only a reliable table tennis player, but also a diplomat. He has a good political sensitivity, "he said.

Later that night, around 11 pm, Mao took a very important decision. As usual, Mao who was then at the age of 78 always taking sleeping pills every night. Days before he had warned his private nurse, Wu Xujun, that any utterance of that amount after taking sleeping pills should not be considered. But that night out an incredible speech. With the sound is not clear because it has been plagued by sleepiness after taking sleeping pills, Mao gave orders to Wu. "Telephone Wang Hairong (Head of Protocol at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), asks her to invite the American team to China," he said.

Received such an order, Wu was shocked. The reason, he knew that Mao had previously agreed not to invite the American team to China. Aware of how important it commands, Wu confusion. If implemented, Wu Mao orders hit earlier that whatever he said after taking sleeping pills do not need to be ignored. However, if not implemented, the risk is too great. Relations with the United States is not a matter that can be made fool around, let alone by a private nurse seems. Especially stay 20 minutes longer on 6 April will soon pass, and it could be the American team hurried home if Mao's orders not immediately forwarded to the Chinese delegation. Thought had thought, Wu finally decided to pretend not to understand the words of Mao. If the Chairman meant what he'll repeat it, thought Wu. Come on. With eye-literate brake because sleepy, Mao who saw the nurse not carry out his orders promptly reprimanded. "Why are you still in situ WU. Why do not you carry out my orders? "He said.

Was reprimanded, Wu realized that Mao is serious with his words. But for sure, he asks confirmation from the Chairman. "You have been taking sleeping pills. Are you serious command, "he asked. "Of course. Quick! Quick! Otherwise it'll not trigger again, "Mao replied firmly. After getting confirmation, then Wu rushed execute such orders.

Mao's sleeping pill episode shows how the 'little people,' a private nurse, again took part in making a major decision of a country. If not dodgy dealing Wu Mao's orders, for example, he simply ignores commands that have influenced the Chairman of the sleeping pills, most likely Ping Pong Diplomacy is not going to happen, and perhaps the history of China and the history of the world would be different than we are now witnessing. The episode can be regarded as a fifth chance.

Various coincidence that determines the occurrence of Ping Pong Diplomacy did not get here alone. Today was the morning when the Chinese delegation leader, Zhao Zhenghong, receiving instruction from Beijing. At that time he was having breakfast. Not finished eating, she was told that there is an important message from the Centre. Its content is the order for the American delegation invited Zhao to China. "Given the American team has repeatedly expressed his desire to visit China and they have shown a sense of warm friendship, it was decided to invite them, including his team dreamers, to our country. Visas can be obtained in Hong Kong. If those funds are not sufficient, we can give subsidies, "read the order.

Zhao made helter-skelter. Understandably, time is very tight. Zhao was not sure if the American delegation was still in the hotel or check out. He told Song Zhong to immediately go to the hotel where the Americans to stay and deliver the message. It was already 10:30 when Song arrived at the hotel. By chance, he met with the vice chairman of the American delegation, Horrison Rufford, who had just left the hotel and waited for a taxi. Song also conveyed a message from Beijing to Horrison. Almost nobody trusts Horrison receive amazing hearing it. Formerly the American delegation had planned to leave Japan the next day. It's not just a day before the alleged scheme came news menggemberikan return from Beijing. He also promised to discuss with the leaders and other members of the team and will reply as soon as possible.

After discussions with the team, Harrison reported that China's invitation to the U.S. Embassy in Japan. When important decisions must be taken, the U.S. Ambassador in Japan Armin Meyer is not there by accident. Fortunately perform William Cunningham, Head of Political Division of External Affairs who also happened to be the only expert of China at that time, who dared to take the decision and declared ready to be responsible. He told Harrison that as ordinary citizens, members of the American delegation was given the freedom to accept or reject the invitation of China. Suppose now that Meyer is in place, not necessarily a decision that will be taken as Cunningham. If the decision is not Cunningham, perhaps the decision is awaiting instruction Meyer, and it could be a moment slip by considering the very limited time available. If Cunningham is not a China expert, he is not necessarily willing to take risks to make the right decision.

Later, Cunningham proved the decision taken is appropriate. Once Meyer home in the afternoon, he immediately sent word to the U.S. State Department in order to preach the decision that has been taken Cunningham. The news was then forwarded to the White House. After receiving the shocking news, President Richard Nixon was astonished and pleased. He did not expect 'cold-hearted girl' was using ping pong as a means of approach. Of course he immediately welcomed ball that has thrown the Chinese.

Bailer was intercepted. After many twists and turns through, eventually went ping pong American delegation along with several journalists to China on April 10. During the week there, they do a variety of activities, ranging from ping pong demonstration team versus team USA China, visited the Great Wall and the Summer Palace outside Beijing, met with Chinese students and workers, as well as attending various social events in major cities. They even accepted by Prime Minister Zhou Enlai in the Great Hall. Welcome warmth of Chinese troupe brings impression for the American team, an impression that overturns perceptions for which they have of the Chinese people. Glenn Cowan, for example, enthusiastically said, "Fantastic! Absolutely fantastic! Chinese people turned out just the same as us. They are real, they are genuine, they have feelings. "

American ping pong team group photo session at the Great Wall

American ping pong team group photo session at the Great Wall.

People-to-people diplomacy that seems trivial it turned out great mendapatperhatian of the public. Domestic and international media reported on a large-scale incident. When taking the decision, Nixon and his adviser, Henry Kissingers, like playing dice. They do not know what the reaction will be like the American public. Therefore, so know the event covered the U.S. media, Kissinger had felt nervous. Understandably, the influence of mass media in America is so huge in the government press. Fortunately, the reaction was very positive media in America. The New York Times, for example, choose a title that affirmative-optimistic headline, such as 'Chinese Americans Greet with Smiles and Curiosity' (12 April) and 'Red China Hints Softening of Position on Tie to U.S.' (18 April). Washington Post also wearing a matching titles, such as 'U.S. Table Tennis Team Greeted Wamrly in Peking' (11 April) and 'China Embargo eased; Chou Sees Better Ties' (15 April). Time magazine even reported the event with an impressive tone. "The ping heard round the world," wrote the media. The positive reaction from the media also helped play snowball effect Ping Pong Diplomacy so the effect is more pronounced.

Impact of Ping Pong Diplomacy

With the Ping Pong Diplomacy, the United States was still confused how to approach China as if finding the door. On the same day after Zhuo met with the American delegation at the Great Hall on April 14, Washington immediately announced 5 new step in relations with China, including one of the most important is the lifting of the embargo that has lasted for 20 years. Two days later, Nixon sent a message to China with 'signals' that he intends to visit the Bamboo Curtain country. Beijing did not immediately signal affirms Nixon, but gave a positive signal with the team received an invitation to the American ping pong ping pong team to China to visit the land of Uncle Sam.

Dated May 17, Nixon formally declared his intention to visit China. But he suggested that the first secret meeting held between Kissingers with Zhou Enlai in order to prepare the visit. This time Beijing to open her heart. Then be Kissingers secretly visited China and met with Zhou Enlai on July 9 to 11. Only 4 days later, which is dated July 15, Nixon formally announced a planned visit to China to be made before May 1972.

Nixon Visits to China

After passing through various twists and turns over, eventually Nixon's visit took place on 17 to 28 February 1972. Then there was a historic meeting between the two top leaders of the two countries, Richard Nixon and Mao Zedong, on February 21. Two hearts that had already unified the feuding. During the meeting, Nixon declared that the United States and China have a common interest to normalize relations between the two countries. It was necessary to reduce the chances of conflict and keep the peace. After the visit, each of the parties give each other gifts. Interestingly, the two exchanged souvenirs equally intangible beast. U.S. gives China a pair of musk oxen, while China's giant panda pair presented the United States. The panda pair arrived in the U.S. in 1972 and stored at the National Zoo, Washington DC, as a symbol of US-China relations. Since then, the relationship of China and the United States is growing.

Mao met Nixon

Mao met Nixon.

However, that does not necessarily mean the relationship has become intimate of all time. Fluctuations still exist. This is because of differences in the two characters that are too flashy. On the one hand, America is a developed country that upholds democracy, human rights, and liberalism, while on the other hand China is a developing country and the communist system mengantus sensitive to democracy and human rights. Even until now, the relationship has continued to experience transformation. But whatever, the melting of the relationship since the 1970s provides another nuance in the constellation of global geopolitics. All of that is thanks to the one-Ping-Pong Diplomacy. So, who says the multi-track diplomacy is the new stuff? As a token of appreciation, let's play ping pong ...

Sources:

1. Biography of Richard Milhous Nixon, http://nixon.archives.gov/thelife/nixonbio.pdf.
2. Ping Pong Diplomacy, http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/olympics/100660.htm.
3. Ping-PongDiplomacy (April 6 to 17, 1971), http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/peopleevents/pande07.html.
4. Ping Pong Diplomacy: Nixon's Trip to China, http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/html/exhibits.php?id=7.
5. Ping-Pong Diplomacy spearheaded the US-Chinese Relations, http://www.america.gov/st/peacesec-english/2006/April/20080522121040WRybakcuH0.8632013.html.
6. Sino-Japanese Relations, http://www.csp.org/Flyers/9781847186201-sample.pdf.
7. Sino-Japanese Relations: Issues for U.S. Policy, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40093.pdf.
8. Sino-US Relations in Transformation, http://irchina.org/en/xueren/china/view.asp?id=700.
9. The Development of Sino-Russian Relations, http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/34904/8/501108.pdf.
10. The Path Toward Sino-American Rapprochement, 1969-1972, http://www.ghi-dc.org/files/publications/bu_supp/supp1/supp-01_026.pdf.
11. The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict, 1969: U.S. Reactions and Diplomatic maneuvers, http://www.gwu.edu/ ~ nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49 /.
12. The Sino-Soviet Split, http://www.marxists.org/subject/stalinism/origins-future/ch3-1.htm.
13. Thomas W. Robinson, The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: Background, Development, and the March 1969 Clashes, http://www.jstor.org/pss/1957173.
14. Zhaohui Hong and Yi Sun, The Butterfly Effect and the Making of 'Ping-Pong Diplomacy, "Journal of Contemporary China (2000), 9 (25), 429-448, http://www.cbtm.org.br/scripts / arquivos/3862998.pdf.
15. Zhuang Zedong, http://www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/en/Zhuang_Zedong

* The author is a young diplomat candidate Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia. This paper are personal and do not represent the institution.